Constructing clearly defined paragraphs is the key to a good essay. Paragraphs can be seen as being rather like the bricks in a wall. They are all interdependent but they are also independent units. They support each other but they have their own character. Every paragraph will have its own focus and this will be different from that of any other paragraph in your essay. Each paragraph will be one element in your overall answer to the question that has been asked.

The topic of the paragraph must always be very clearly stated at the start. Not surprisingly, this first sentence is referred to as the topic sentence of the paragraph.

The topic sentence is very important for four reasons.

• Writing the topic sentence of a paragraph requires you to think very carefully about the focus of that paragraph. In other words, you will not be able to go on to develop a well-constructed paragraph without thinking very carefully about the content of that paragraph. This helps to limit any drift in the paragraph and will help you to edit out vague, unfocused writing.
• Having written the whole paragraph, you can return to the topic sentence and check whether the topic of the paragraph has in fact been clearly reflected in the writing. If you have drifted in a different direction during the paragraph, you will be able to see this very clearly.
• The topic sentences will help you to check the logical flow of your essay. A very good way to see if your essay is well constructed is to cut and paste the introduction on to a separate page, together with each of the topic sentences. When you look at your introduction and your topic sentences, there should be clear logical progression. You should be able to see the direction and development of your essay. The focus of each paragraph should be obvious. If this is not the case, you will need to go back and reconsider the topic sentences, the wording of your paragraphs and perhaps the structure of your essay.
• The topic sentence also guides the readers and enables them to follow your essay far more easily. (Very important when you want a good mark!) The topic sentences are rather like signposts leading the reader through the text.

Paragraphing is an important convention of written English. It has developed as a visual way of helping the reader to follow an extended piece of writing. Paragraphs help us to understand how the sentences are grouped together and in this way they are very useful. The sentences within a paragraph explore one specific theme while a new paragraph indicates that a new topic or idea is being addressed. Paragraphs may be long or short, but each one will develop a particular topic point. Paragraphs are not a unit of length. There is no specific length for a paragraph in an academic essay, although in general we can say that three lines is too short and one full page is too long. It is very important that your paragraphs are sequenced in a logical order because they will provide the major building blocks for the argument in the essay. In the same way that blocks are placed one on top of each other to construct a building, so your paragraphs will be placed in such a way that you gradually build up your argument. Many students make the mistake of thinking that an academic essay is merely a description, but this is not correct. It is an integration of facts and evidence that provides the reader with a coherent argument. Your paragraphs should be steps in the development of your argument.

A text that has been well planned has well-organised paragraphs, and the purpose of each paragraph will be clearly signposted by its layout as well as by the language. First, a new paragraph will be marked out in one of two ways: either a full line is left between the paragraphs or the first word of the new paragraph is indented. Today, the majority of writers leave an empty line between the paragraphs. Second, a paragraph is a series of sentences that develops one idea, and in academic writing that idea is usually stated in one sentence (although it may not be the first sentence) and this is called the topic sentence. This is the most important sentence in the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph will support and elaborate the idea, and perhaps provide examples to illustrate the topic sentence. In some ways this is similar to a newspaper article where you often find that the first sentence of each paragraph states clearly what it is about. You may have noticed that you can skim through a newspaper article by reading the first sentence of each paragraph.

The paragraph topic statement can take several different forms.

• It may tell the reader what to expect in the paragraph: The survey results indicate that banks are failing their customers.
• It may be a statement that will be supported with evidence: The discovery indicates that the Bronze Age settlers built three types of houses.
• It may make a clear statement of belief and then go on to elaborate: Humour is one of the best ways of combating disease.

The topic sentence cannot be:

• a simple statement of fact: Paris is the capital of France.
• a vague opinion or comment: I think that banks in Britain are overcharging.

After the topic sentence, the writer must provide illustrations or evidence to support the topic sentence. These are called topic points. There may be several topic points in a paragraph and each one will be supported by specific details. The framework of your first three paragraphs might look like this:

• Topic sentence 1
• Topic point A: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic point B: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic point C: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic sentence 2
• Topic point A: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic point B: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic point C: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic sentence 3
• Topic point A: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic point B: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc
• Topic point C: specific detail 1, 2, 3 etc

Specific detail under the various topic points can comprise anything from examples, statistics, dates or description, as well as support for your argument from other writers through quotations, paraphrase or summary.

Have a look at the activity below. These sentences comprise a short description made up of two paragraphs. Pinpoint the topic sentences of the two paragraphs and then decide on the order of the remaining sentences.

Title of the essay: Keeping fit

The rowing machines are always very popular and there are five different models.

The water is always very clean although the changing rooms are rather small.

In addition, it is well staffed and there is always someone there to give you assistance.

However, you will need to check the timetable carefully because sometimes there are special times set aside for children or families or club training.

It is open to swimmers from 8am in the morning until 10pm at night.

The Munrow Centre is in the campus of the University of Birmingham and it offers a wide range of different ways in which people can keep fit.

Finally, there are swimming lessons for people who cannot swim.

The gym provides an excellent centre for improving fitness.

Another very popular activity is using the cycling machines and these are also extremely popular with both men and women.

The 50metre swimming pool is extremely well used.

There are large changing rooms and showers for both men and women.

It is very well equipped and contains many different machines.

Keeping fit

The correct order is as follows:

The Munrow Centre is in the campus of the University of Birmingham and it offers a wide range of different ways in which people can keep fit. The 50metre swimming pool is extremely well used. It is open to swimmers from 8am in the morning until 10pm at night. However, you will need to check the timetable carefully because sometimes there are special times set aside for children or families or club training.

The water is always very clean although the changing rooms are rather small. Finally, there are swimming lessons for people who cannot swim.

The gym provides an excellent centre for improving fitness. It is very well equipped and contains many different machines. In addition, it is well staffed and there is always someone there to give you assistance. The rowing machines are always very popular and there are five different models. Another very popular activity is using the cycling machines and these are also extremely popular with both men and women.

There are large changing rooms and showers for both men and women.

Now look at the paragraph below and decide on the topic sentences and the note the different features. Write down the features of this paragraph in line with the framework of topic sentence, topic point and specific detail referred to above.

Trees

Trees are very important to us for many very practical reasons because of the uses to which the wood can be put. However, their value in economic terms is nothing compared to their role in helping to regulate the world’s climate and providing fertile soil. The wholesale destruction of trees is a threat to us all because trees support life. A single tree can take up 1000-2000 litres of water from the ground every year, releasing most from the leaves as water vapour. This water vapour is then added to water vapour from other sources to form clouds. It eventually returns to the ground in the form of rain or possibly snow. This ability to move vast quantities of water vapour from one place to another has a significant effect on the regional climate and on local water table levels. Another factor is that the ground in a forest acts like an enormous sponge. It absorbs rainwater and holds it within the soil, releasing it gradually back into the atmosphere. Where trees have been cut down, the ground is unable to absorb water so easily and it runs off, rapidly causing flooding in other areas. A further factor is the degree to which most trees add to the fertility in the soil around them. Every year millions upon millions of leaves flutter down and rot into the soil, adding to the richness of the soil base in which other plants can grow. Insects thrive within this rich, damp environment and they are themselves a source of food for other animals up the food chain. All of them are threatened when trees are cut down in large numbers.

Comment on the passage Trees

Trees are very important to us for many very practical reasons because of the uses to which the wood can be put. [Topic sentence] However, their value in economic terms is nothing compared to their role in helping to regulate the world’s climate and providing fertile soil. [Topic point 1] The wholesale destruction of trees is a threat to us all because trees support life. [Specific detail A] A single tree can take up 1000-2000 litres of water from the ground every year, releasing most from the leaves as water vapour. [B] This water vapour is then added to water vapour from other sources to form clouds.[C] It eventually returns to the ground in the form of rain or possibly snow. [D:] This ability to move vast quantities of water vapour from one place to another has a significant effect on the regional climate and on local water table levels. [Topic point 2] Another factor is that the ground in a forest acts like an enormous sponge. [Specific detail A] It absorbs rainwater and holds it within the soil, releasing it gradually back into the atmosphere. [B] Where trees have been cut down, the ground is unable to absorb water so easily and it runs off rapidly causing flooding in other areas. [Topic point 3] A further factor is the degree to which most trees add to the fertility of the soil around them. [Specific detail A] Every year millions upon millions of leaves flutter down and rot into the soil, adding to the richness of the soil base in which other plants can grow. [B] Insects thrive within this rich, damp environment and they are themselves a source of food for other animals up the food chain. [C] All of them are threatened when trees are cut down in large numbers.

In what ways can you develop your argument in the paragraphs? In academic writing, the writer must decide on the best way to present the information or the argument. Several approaches will be outlined here although, in practice, the approaches may overlap to some degree.

1. The paragraph might take the form of a comparison and/or contrast between two different systems or theories. For example, you may be comparing two views on a particular play or contrasting two political views.

2. Your paragraph could take on the form of an extendeddefinition. For example, you may want to explain in detail what is meant by role modelling in an essay on the educational environment.

3. Your paragraph may take the form of a cause/effect analysis; for example, you may be analysing the causes and results of a particular event in history.

Look at the three paragraphs below, and decide which method of development the writer is using. Underline the topic sentence, and highlight the topic point and specific detail.

Beauty

It’s an old cliché that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, but we see evidence of it everywhere we look. There is little doubt that people interpret beauty in many different ways. An archaeologist will see beauty in a bone or a fragment of stone while others will see only a fragment of matter. A scientist will see beauty in a formula or a chemical reaction while others will turn away in confusion or disgust. A dog breeder will see beauty in a particular breed of dog while their neighbour will see only a drawling, smelly beast busy fouling the roadways given half a chance. A businessman may see beauty in healthy bank statement. For me, beauty does not reside in matter or other living beings, but in music. A violin being played by a talented musician can easily reduce me to tears by the sheer beauty of the sound. Beauty is not something you can touch, but something ethereal and beyond our reach. However, for me, beauty does not reside in music alone.

A basic truth

Despite all the debate and the anguish, the revelations and the confessions, the assertive women and the new men, many women are now reluctantly being forced to draw the same conclusion: the chips are still stacked against women, and men haven’t changed. Even this week a report appeared confirming what many of us have known for some time, which is that women earn a lot less than men in the course of their working lives. In fact, the women who lose out the most are the intelligent ones with a bunch of GCSE passes but without a degree. They earn around a quarter of a million pounds a year less in their working lives then men doing the same job. At a more personal relationship level, men continue to want to control and lead. They are happy to make the odd gesture with the house or the children, but fundamentally they want the women to take responsibility for the time honoured home-based tasks while they continue to go out and earn the major income. It gives them a sense of worth and a meaning to their lives, poor things. It’s quite a basic truth really; how many women have you see on the front of a Yamaha 850 with a man clinging on behind? They might do it once, for a laugh, but at the end of the day, the man wants to be sitting up front with the controls in his hands. Some people say that women who can’t see this are battling against a fundamental truth of evolution. However, despite the prevalence of these attitudes, change is on the way.

Marangu

When I first visited Marangu in 1977, it was a small, sleepy village about 3,000 ft up the side of Mount Kilimanjaro. A narrow road wound up from the valley floor, passing through maize fields, then banana plantations, then banana and coffee plantations and finally a mixture of eucalyptus trees and pine trees mixed in with the bananas and coffee. It was cool and lovely. Despite the fact that the village itself was small, there were two hotels and a training college. The hotels were there because Marangu was the starting point for most of the tourists who wanted to climb the mountain. The college was there because the region had maintained a tradition of education for over a 100 years or more and the college was merely one reflection of that fact. Today, in many ways, Marangu has changed very little, although changes have certainly taken place. The road has been rebuilt and now it’s wider and the traffic travels up and down faster and more dangerously than it should. There are more houses too, some of the small and simple and some of them inappropriately grandiose. The hotels are still there, unchanged apart from rewiring and repainting. The college is completely unchanged in almost every respect, and even some of the same staff members are still teaching there. One has been there since 1965 after completing his teacher training in the college. It’s a beautiful college and I can still stand on the steps at the back of the main building and, on a good day, see the snow covered peak of Kilimanjaro. It brings back some striking memories.

Comment

Beauty – extended definition

A basic truth – contrast

Marangu – comparison

It is important to provide links in your writing. When writing your sentences, try to link up one sentence with another. In the same way, when writing your paragraphs, try to link up one paragraph with another. This can take two forms: ending a paragraph with a sentence that leads forward to the next paragraph or starting the new paragraph in a way that links back to the previous paragraph.

Look at the passages above (Beauty, A basic truth, Marangu) and find the sentences that provide links with any subsequent paragraphs. When you’ve done that, look at the notes below.

Notes:

In these paragraphs, the last line of each paragraph leads into the following paragraph.

However, for me, beauty does not reside in music alone. (And my next paragraph will develop this idea and explain what else exemplifies beauty for me.)

However, despite the prevalence of these attitudes, change is on the way. (And in my next paragraph I will outline about these changes.)

It brings back some striking memories. (And in my next paragraph, I will describe some of about these memories.)

One further way of making links between paragraphs is to repeat certain key words and phrases, or near equivalents, in closely related paragraphs. This ensures a strong feeling of continuity from one idea to the next. In the example below, the key words and phrases have been circled and then linked with lines to show the connections that exist between one paragraph and the preceding and following paragraphs. Notice how the writer provides the reader with links, making it easier to follow the train of the argument.

The doctors of the law, those who developed and preserved the consensus of the community, were the nearest equivalent to a teaching authority in Sunni Islam, and it was essential for them to make sure that the understanding of fiqh and of its bases was fully transmitted from one generation to another.

From an early time there seems to have been a formal procedure for the transmission of religious learning. In mosques, and especially in the large congregational ones, circles of students would group themselves around a teacher sitting against a pillar and expounding a subject through reading and commentating upon a book. From at least the eleventh century, however, there grew up a kind of institution devoted largely to legal learning, the madrasa: its origin is often ascribed to Nizam al-Mulk, the wazir of the first Saljuq ruler of Baghdad, but in fact goes back to an earlier time. The madrasa was a school, often although not always attached to a mosque; it included a place of residence for students. It was established as a waqf by an individual donor; this gave it an endowment and ensured its permanence, since property of which the income was devoted to a pious or charitable purpose could not be alienated.

Some institutions were established for the teaching of the Koran or Hadith, but the main purpose of most of them was the study and teaching of fiqh. To take an example: the Tankiziyya madrasa in Jerusalem, endowed during the Mamluk period, had four halls, opening off a central courtyard, one each for the teaching of Hadith, Hanafi law and Sufism, while the fourth was a mosque.

Signposting

‘Signposts’ are found in good academic essays and they will also help the reader to understand the writing more easily. They help to link what has already been said with what is about to be discussed.

Some of the words that we have already considered can be used as signposts. For example consequently, however, similarly, moreover, in contrast and so on. Look at the example above; the signpost words are shown in bold. In addition to these words, we can also use expressions like these:

• This programme …
• Despite these difficulties …
• These suggestions …
• However, in the modern world …
• In the next section, …

In each case we are making reference to a point already mentioned, or we are indicating that we about to consider something new. For example, our signposts can look backwards at a point already raised:

• This suggestion …
• These ideas …
• This brief outline suggests …
• Such proposals …

Similarly, our signposts can look forwards towards issues that will be raised in the next section or in the near future:

• In this section, I will …
• My next chapter will consider why …
• A recent study suggests …
• One important recent finding indicates that …
• Some signposts look in both directions at the same time!
• Despite these reports, other writers have proposed …
• In spite of these findings, teachers believe …
• This view has been rejected by some authors who claim that …
• In contrast, a recent article …

Task

Look at these passages and underline any ‘signposts’. Do they look forwards, backwards or in both directions?

Passage A:

Despite this difficulty, many theories have been proposed to explain these results, but the evidence has proved to be elusive. However, this does not mean that the theories can be discounted. The following chapter will explore the evidence in more detail.

Passage B:

In the last chapter, we examined the link between foreign direct investment and social development. In this chapter, I would like to explore the differences between this form of investment and local investment. The first section will consider the factors that encourage and discourage local investment. These factors will then be analysed in the light of recent developments in China.

Passage C:

Are these theories supported by data? The evidence, unfortunately, is inconclusive. Despite exhaustive studies, no positive identification has ever been made. This has proved to be the most difficult problem of all. However, quite recently, a new method of collecting the data has been proposed. This method relies on sub-sectional analysis, which has not been adopted before. This form of analysis has some interesting features. Firstly, …

Notes on the Task

Passage A:

Despite this difficulty [this looks backwards] many theories have been proposed to explain these results, [this looks backwards] but the evidence has proved to be elusive.

However, this does not mean… – this looks backwards.

…that the theories can be discounted.

The following chapter will explore the evidence in more detail. – this looks forwards.

Passage B:

In the last chapter, we examined [this looks backwards] the link between foreign direct investment and social development. In this chapter, I would like to explore [this looks forwards] the differences between this form of investment and local investment. The first section will consider [ this looks forwards] the factors that encourage and discourage local investment. These factors will then be analysed [this looks forwards] in the light of recent developments in China.

Passage C:

Are these theories supported by data? [this looks backwards] The evidence, unfortunately, is inconclusive. Despite exhaustive studies, no positive identification has ever been made. This has proved [this points backwards] to be the most difficult problem of all. However, quite recently, a new method of collecting the data has been proposed. This method [this looks backwards] relies on sub-sectional analysis which has not been adopted before. This form of analysis has some interesting features. [this looks forwards] Firstly, …

There are two main reasons why we use source material in our writing:

• to support a particular point that we have just made in the body of the essay or dissertation
• to indicate to the reader that we have read and understood the literature that is relevant to the particular topic.

We quote from a particular source when we use the original words from a text without any changes. Quotations are important in your essay. If they are well used, and support the text, they demonstrate both wide reading and understanding. However, you should not quote too often because the reader might take this as being a sign of a lack of real thought on your part.

In addition to quotations, it is also important to explain in your own words (summarising or paraphrasing) what you understand by a particular idea or approach. A maximum of about two quotes per page is generally recommended.

Quoting is different from summarising or paraphrasing because we use the writer’s actual words. There are a number of rules that we need to be aware of when we are quoting directly.

• It is very important to ensure that the quote is correctly given; providing a mis-quotation in your essay would indicate a serious level of carelessness.
• The quotation must be relevant to the argument that you are making.
• The quotation should support a point that you have just made.
• The quote must be integrated grammatically into your own writing.
• Where the quotation is short (for example, less than one line) you can continue on the same line, enclosing the quotation in single quotation marks, and of course, providing the reference.
• If the quotation is more than one line, start a new line and indent the whole quotation. Do not forget the reference.
• Do not use quotation marks where the passage is indented.
• At times, you will not want to quote the whole passage and where you wish to omit part of it, type three or four dots to indicate that a section has been deliberately omitted because it is unnecessary.

Here are several examples of how to quote in an essay.

Example 1

…and recent research has indicated that ‘…teachers in both primary and secondary schools are finding it increasingly difficult to teach effectively…’ (Kimble 2005 p.46) and the reasons given focus in particular on the amount of administrative work that they are obliged to carry out.

Note the fact that the quote becomes an integral part of the sentence. The quote is surrounded by single inverted commas to help to make it stand out. Because the quote is only part of the original sentence, the writer puts three dots at the start and end of the quotation.

Example 2

Some writers question the current approach to meeting and communicating with members of the opposite sex.

Chatting on the Internet seems to be accepted as normal today, just like chatting to a girl on a street corner fifty years ago; but is it the same? Evidence suggests that they are different in fundamental ways. (Mathews, Jones and Smith 2000)

Note that only longer pieces of text are laid out in this way. The quoted passage is indented. It’s important to note that the text does not have inverted commas around it unlike when a short quote is integrated within a sentence.

However, we do not always want to quote directly and so we may wish to comment on others’ writing without actually using their words.

Example 3

Many writers are already asking questions about the environment in which we bring up our children (Harold 2000; Yeshim 2001; Timms 2002).

Note that the reference is the year and date only without a page reference in this case because we are referring to a general view put over by these writers and we are not referring to a specific page. Note also that the reference is integrated within the sentence and the only full stop comes after the reference.

With direct quotes, grammatical integration into the text is particularly important. Look at these examples and decide if there is anything wrong with them.

• As Smith has noted ‘Foreign direct investment in China have had a significant impact on the whole economy’ (1987 : 54).
• Smith (1987 : 78) defines foreign direct investment as ‘Foreign direct investment is the inflow of capital from external sources.’
• Some writers have expressed their concern. Smith (187 : 109) expressed his concerning when he claimed that ‘and my concern is that excessive levels of inward direct investment can adversely impact on the economy.’
• Kilburn has defined innocence as ‘Innocence is the child in all of us.’ (Kilburn, 1987 : 56)
• As Blair (Blair, 1997 : 109) writes that the origins of the Labour Party lie in the history of exploitation.
• Emmit notes (Emmit, 1999 : 91) that road safety is not negotiable and ‘road safety is not negotiable because people’s lives matter more than speed.’

Notes

• As Smith has noted ‘Foreign direct investment in China have had a significant impact on the whole economy’ (1987 : 54).

Mistake in the quote; use of have instead of has.

• Smith (1987 : 78) defines foreign direct investment as ‘Foreign direct investment is the inflow of capital from external sources.’

The quote is not integrated into the sentence and it should read as follows: Smith defines foreign direct investment as ‘the inflow of capital from external sources’.

• Some writers have expressed their concern. Smith (187 : 109) expressed his concerning when he claimed that ‘and my concern is that excessive levels of inward direct invest can adversely impact on the economy.’

The quote is not integrated in the sentence; delete and my concern is that. Mistaken use of concerning instead of concern.

• Kilburn has defined innocence as ‘Innocence is the child in all of us.’ (Kilburn, 1987 : 56)

The quote is not integrated in the sentence; delete Innocence is.

• As Blair (Blair, 1997 : 109) writes that the origins of the Labour Party lie in the history of exploitation.

It’s unnecessary to repeat Blair. Mistaken and unnecessary use of as/that.

• As Blair (1997 : 109) writes, the origins of the Labour Party lie in the history of exploitation.
• Blair ( 1997 : 109) writes that the origins of the Labour Party lie in the history of exploitation.
• Emmit notes (Emmit, 1999 : 91) that road safety is not negotiable and ‘road safety is not negotiable because people’s lives matter more than speed.’

The writer should not repeat Emmit and repetition in the quote.

At the end of your essay you will have listed your bibliography, in other words the books that you have referred to in writing the essay. Within the body of your essay, you only have to provide a small amount of information (the reference) but it will be enough to tell the reader in which book you found the quotation, and perhaps where to find it in that book.

We can provide the reference in a number of slightly different ways.

References in an academic essay usually consist of the author’s last name, the year of publication and the page number. Like this:

In a recent article Jones (1989 :126) stated that…

or:

In a recent article, one writer (Jones 1989 :126) argued that …

or:

Jones claims that the agreement is unworkable (Jones 1989 :126).

or:

Jones has described the proposition as ‘unworkable and unacceptable’ (1989 : 126).

Notice the single quotation marks around the original words used. Notice also the position of the full-stop when we have the reference at the very end of the sentence. The reference is enclosed within the boundary of the sentence.

As noted before, where a longer passage is quoted within a paragraph, then this is inset and the author’s name is placed at the end of the quotation. Like this:

There is little doubt that this is an unworkable and unacceptable solution to the problem. Further research must be conducted before a solution can be found. (Jones 1989 : 126)

As noted before, there are no quotation marks around the excerpt when it is inset in this way.

Another point to remember is that where several authors have written one book or article, and the first named author is a man, you should not refer to he when you mean they. If the authors are John Benson and Mary Jones, it would be incorrect to refer throughout the essay to what Benson said or what he discovered. It would be more appropriate to talk about what the writers have stated, or what they had noted.

Parallelism is an important concept in writing. Ideas that are written in a parallel form are easier to read and understand. Ideas that are not written in parallel look strange, and are certainly inappropriate in academic writing.

Look at these examples:

• He would rather swim than to jog for exercise.
• A lot of students attend Green Oak College because of its low tuition charges, small class size, and the lecturers all have professional qualifications.

The writer has used the form swim followed by the form to jog and this is grammatically incorrect and also sounds odd for the reader.

In the second example, the final point does not reflect the form of the other two points. It should read: A lot of students attend Green Oak College because of its low tuition charges, small class size and professionally qualified lecturers.

Look at the examples below. Do any changes need to be made in these examples? When you have made any changes you want to make, look at the end of this section and check the answers.

• Simon is one of the most intelligent people that I know with a quick mind and he has a good memory as well.
• Tanzania is one of the most beautiful countries in the world with high mountains and it has large game parks too.
• Writing essays is not easy because it takes time and care and careful thinking.
• She enjoys scuba diving, sailing, wind surfing and she likes tennis sometimes.
• In some universities the facilities are excellent with good libraries and the sports facilities are good.
• The college has an excellent lending library and the reference library is good, so students have all the resources they need.
• Birmingham is the second largest city in the UK and it’s got a larger area of public parkland than any other city.
• Their team was second in the relay race but overall they came in at number three in the competition.

Notes:

Here are the above sentences after correction:

• Simon is one of the most intelligent people that I know with a quick mind and a good memory as well.
• Tanzania is one of the most beautiful countries in the world with high mountains and large game parks.
• Writing essays is not easy because it takes time, care and thought.
• She enjoys scuba diving, sailing, wind surfing and tennis.
• In some universities the facilities are excellent with good libraries and sports facilities.
• The college has an excellent lending library and an excellent reference library, so students have all the resources they need.
• Birmingham is the second largest city in the UK with the largest area of public parkland.
• Their team was second in the relay race but third in the competition overall.

Here is part of an advertisement placed in a newspaper. Read it, and decide how the details of the post can be changed so that the advertisement is more professional in terms of style and clarity.

WANTED a new Chief Executive!

Our college is looking for a new Chief Executive to lead it through the first ten years of the new century. The college has a wide range of exciting courses and we have 1,600 students from over 50 different countries.

Details of the post:

• The Chief Executive will advise the College Board on strategy, policy formulation and implementation.
• To consult, advise, persuade and encourage a complex organisation of independent and publicly financed colleges to work as a cohesive market force.
• A high profile academic role relevant to the changing needs of the national and international educational markets.

The right candidate will have …

Notes on the Task:

The sentences now in italics all begin in a different manner. The effect of this is that we have:

The Chief Executive will advise … (a noun phrase + verb)

To consult, advise, persuade … (verb infinitives)

A high profile academic role relevant … (a complex clause)

The style is awkward and unprofessional and this makes the advertisement difficult to read. It would be improved if all three requirements in the advertisement followed the same pattern. For example, with the use of initial verbs:

The Chief Executive will:

• advise the College Board on strategy, policy formulation and implementation.
• consult, advise, persuade and encourage a complex organisation of independent and publicly financed colleges to work as a cohesive market force.
• hold a high profile academic role relevant to the changing needs of the national and international educational markets

With such widespread use of computers it would be very unusual these days to write out your essay, although this is possible. Computers make drafting and revising your work so much easier that they are certainly the best tool to use. They also allow you to present your work in a more professional manner.

It is important to check with your lecturers to ensure that you follow the recommended layout for your department. Having said that, there are some recommendations that can be made here which are commonly features of academic essay presentation.

Look at these two pages of text. Which do you think looks better?

An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot easily be worked out from the words it contains. For example, the expression:

to let the cat out of the bag has nothing to do with cats and bags in the usual sense of those words.

It is an idiom, meaning ‘to reveal a secret’. Idioms have the potential to ause foreign learners some difficulty.

If you say to a native speaker after visiting a place for the first time ‘How did you find Stratford?’ you might get the response ‘Great!’ or ‘I didn’t like it.’ But if you ask a non-native speaker the same question the response might be blank puzzlement.

‘How did I find Stratford? Well, the train took me there.’ The confusion occurs because here, find is being used in an idiomatic way.’

An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot easily be worked out from the words it contains.

For example, the expression to let the cat out of the bag has nothing to do with cats and bags in the usual sense of those words. It is an idiom, meaning ‘to reveal a secret’. Idioms have the potential to cause foreign learners some difficulty. If you say to a native speaker after visiting a place for the first time ‘How did you find Stratford?’ you might get the response ‘Great!’ or ‘I didn’t like it.

But if you ask a non-native speaker the same question, the response might be blank puzzlement. ‘How did I find Stratford? Well, the train took me there.’ The confusion occurs because here, find is being used in an idiomatic way.

Most people would agree that the second text is presented in a neater and more appropriate way. Remember that academic essays are formal pieces of writing and they should be presented in a formal style.

Here are some recommendations:

• Use A4 paper (or whatever is the standard size in your part of the world).
• Provide a top cover to your essay with the title centred about one-third of the way down and your own name centred about six lines below.
• If you do not provide a front cover, place the title of your essay near the top of the first page and centre it. You may use a bold font or you may underline it, but don’t do both. Your name should be above and to the right of the essay title.
• Leave a margin of not less than 3cm at the sides and top and about 5cm at the bottom for the markers comments.
• Leave at least 3 empty lines before you start the first line of your essay.
• Use a font size that is neither too large nor too small; 11point or 12point are normally suitable.
• Arrange your lines so that they have one and a half spacing; some departments will request double spacing.
• Fully justify the page so that you get straight lines of print on both sides.
• Separate each paragraph with an extra empty line.
• Do not accidentally leave extra spaces between any of the words.
• Number your pages using arabic numerals, 1, 2, 3, etc.
• Do not number your points or paragraphs, or give a heading to the paragraphs unless this was specifically requested by the course lecturer.
• Left justify your bibliography; leave an empty line between each of the items in the list.

Writing an academic essay can be divided into seven main stages:

• understanding what the title is asking you to do
• reading around the subject and making notes
• brainstorming; collecting ideas
• planning
• writing your first draft
• revising your writing
• completing the final draft, and handing it in!

If you try to bypass one of these stages, or you don’t give yourself adequate time to complete one or more stages, your essay will suffer and your final mark will be correspondingly low.

Let’s think about the essay title first of all. It’s important to know exactly what the essay title is asking us to do. First look at this essay statement and the four questions that follow it. How will the initial verbs influence your essay?

‘China today is totally different from the country that it was in 1970.’

• Justify this statement.
• Evaluate this statement.
• Outline the ways in which China has changed.
• Diagnose the main causes of change in China.

Although the content of all four essays will overlap, there will be significant differences. An essay asking you to justify a statement will be asking you to find evidence to support the statement.

An essay asking you to evaluate a statement will want you to provide arguments and evidence for and against the statement.

An essay title that asks you to outline events, reasons or causes will want you to show that you have a good grasp of what actually happened, and why.

An essay asking you to diagnose changes or the causes of change will seek to find out if you have a clear understanding of what occurred, and in particular, the causes and effects of different events.

There are a number of verbs that often appear in essay titles; the list of verbs below are particularly common:

• Analyse: investigate, consider in detail
• Compare: look at the similarities and differences
• Contrast: consider the differences between two things or ideas
• Criticise: outline the theory or situation and then state how you approve or disapprove; you can bring in other’s views too perhaps to support your argument
• Define: state clearly and logically the meaning of a word or phrase
• Delineate: give a broad outline of an idea or theory without going into great detail
• Describe: give an account of events, or experiments, findings or theories etc.
• Differentiate: distinguish between two events or theories
• Enumerate: list down the main points, features, factors
• Evaluate: outline the theory or main ideas and then state how you approve or disapprove; you can bring in other’s views
• Examine: look into a theory, a period of history, experimental results etc. in detail
• Explain: give reasons how or why something happened and provide an interpretation
• Explore: examine a theory or event (or series of events) very thoroughly, providing an explanation
• Illustrate: use examples to justify your argument
• Interpret: describe a series of events and provide an explanation
• Justify: give reasons/evidence in support for your argument
• Outline: cover the main points briefly; do not go into detail
• Relate: show how things are related to each other and in what ways they are similar or different
• Review: give an account that includes the main points but not necessarily all the detail; give differing points of view
• State: present a theory or set of beliefs in a clear way
• Summarise: cover all of the main points but not all of the detail.
• Trace: follow the stages in the development of a theory or of historical events from the past

When you are clear about what the essay title is asking you to do, the next task is to find relevant books and articles and do the necessary reading. It is very likely that your lecturer will have provided you with a list of references to refer to, however, do not limit yourself to just this selection. In your search around the library, you are likely to find something relevant to your topic that is not in the book list. Wherever possible, it is a good idea to include references to material not in the book list as this will show the marker that you are researching your topic seriously.

It is advisable to have a separate folder for each essay so that all the notes and articles and photocopies that you collect can be stored together. Ensure that they are all clipped in properly so that they can’t slide out and get in a total muddle! There is nothing worse than hunting through tangled papers searching for that vital quotation!

Keep a good record of the books that you have read. This may be done on a set of cards in a small box if you are very well organised, or it can be done on pages at the back of the file that you are using for that particular essay.

Make clear notes on the material that you have read. Indicate in your notes the title, chapter and page reference for your notes so that you can easily look back at them if you need to. Indicate whether you are summarising an idea, or quoting directly, as this will help you when you come to write the essay. You can choose you own style for making notes. Some people prefer very comprehensive notes, although it will be counterproductive to copy out pages from different books. Other students are happier with brief notes. However, whichever way you tackle taking notes, there are two very important points to remember:

• Make your notes in a very careful and organised manner. Trying to make sense of untidy, scribbled scraps is not going to help you to write a good essay. It might take time, but it will save you time when it comes to writing, and you’ll obtain a higher mark.
• Make sure that you understand what you are reading so that you understand your written notes. Unless you genuinely understand what you have read, you will have little chance of writing a good essay. If you find something particularly difficult, ask another student or approach your lecturer. Don’t be shy to ask questions; lecturers are paid to teach you and part of that role is responding positively to your genuine concerns. You have the right to ask questions at any stage if you do not understand.

Many students find that rewriting ideas in their own words helps them to understand what the original text was trying to say. This may take a little time, but it will be time well spent.

Half the battle to writing a good essay is being well organised. Make sure you are well organised!

• visit the library at an early stage to look for the recommended texts
• file your notes carefully, with titles and page references
• give yourselves adequate time to complete the essay.

And remember, your lecturers can spot plagiarism at one hundred paces!

The process of creating written text that expresses precisely what you want to say takes time, and academic writing is no exception. Some students tempt fate by starting to think about the essay that has to be in on Monday, sometime around Friday evening. Apart from the occasional genius amongst us, for most students, this is an open ticket to disaster. There has to be time for thought and there has to be time for planning, and once the writing starts, there has to be time for re-drafting and revising your material.

With computers all around us, drafting and revising has never been easier. Very few writers are pleased with their first efforts, so it’s important to leave adequate time for reviewing and revision. The process of revision takes three main forms:

• re-reading (many times)
• reflecting (a lot)
• revising (heaps)

The most important point here is that reviewing and revising is not a one-off activity. It is a process that could take place 5, 10 or even 20 times before you hand in your final essay. Every time you look through your essay ask yourself:

• Have I said exactly what I want to say?
• Have I said it clearly?
• Is there any ambiguity?
• Do my paragraphs address one particular point?
• Is there a topic sentence for each paragraph?
• Is it grammatically correct?
• Are there any spelling mistakes?

Reading the essay through very carefully is important, but it is exceedingly difficult to read it through while looking for a variety of different features. It’s not easy in one reading to check for grammar, spelling, fluency, paragraphing, the flow of the argument and punctuation all at the same time. A more effective approach is to read it through with a particular objective in mind, for example, to check the grammar. Having done that, a subsequent reading could be carried out in order to check the flow of the argument.

Three Suggestions

1. You will spot difficulties on a printed page of writing that you would not spot on the computer screen, so always print off a draft and check it through before you hand in the final draft.

2. A very effective way to check your writing is also to read it to yourself aloud. This might appear a rather odd suggestion, but in reality you will be able to pinpoint difficulties within your text much more easily by reading it aloud. This is a particularly effective way of checking your grammar as well as the overall flow of your argument.

3. Show your work to a friend and let him/her read it through. Your friend may or may not be doing the same course as you, but even if they are not their reading may pick out some difficulties with your text that you had not noticed.

Make sure you have signalled clearly what you are doing using introductory words and expressions like these:

• Firstly,… Secondly,… Finally,…
• At first,… Later,…
• There are four reasons why…
• Research studies suggest that the impact of global warming will have an impact in three main areas. Firstly, …

Use verbs that reflect a quiet confidence in what you are saying, while also leaving open the possibility for debate:

• The research suggests…
• The evidence indicates…
• The data reflect…
• The findings support…

Do not overstate your case by using expressions like this:

• It’s obvious that…
• It’s clear that…
• The evidence proves…
• Anybody can clearly see that…
• As Smith (1997) points out…
• Research by Mohammed and Ali indicate that…
• Johns and Gully found that…
• In her study of Marx, Suleiman claims that…
• McChlery notes that in addition to…
• Her study provides an excellent…
• The study conducted by Able and Tomlinson had similar findings and..
• Rashid argues that…
• Jacob identifies two reasons why…
• Chande asserts that…
• According to Berstein…
• Fable and Heshim state that…
• Fairbrother contends that…
• A recent study (Opel 1999) maintains that…
• Kanji’s research findings confirm…
• As can be seen from the table…
• The discoveries clearly illustrate…
• His research suggests…
• Their research indicates…
• Their analysis reveals…
• The results of the study support the hypothesis that…
• The findings clearly establish a link between…
• White alleges…
• Lema assumes…
• Juma presumes that…
• Axel claims that…
• Innocent implies that…

What do we mean by sexist language? Basically, it’s using language in a way that suggests that, for example, that one sex is more important than another, or that particular occupations are better suited to one sex or the other. For example:

• using he when you are referring to an individual who could equally well be a she
• referring to a policeman when police officer would be more appropriate
• using expressions like the pilot, he……
• similarly, the nurse, she ……
• using mother instead of parent
• suggesting in any way that certain jobs (salaried or otherwise) might be more suitable for one particular sex
• indicating in any way that men are the main breadwinners in the family
• referring to a particular sex where a book or article has been written by several authors, and where, for example, the first one is a man and your writing refers to he when in fact you should say they or the authors or the research team.

Non-sexist writing is something that you should develop. It might seem to some people that this is not an important point. The reality however, is that repetitive use of particular language can reinforce unhealthy stereotypes and strengthen prejudices of different kinds. It is important that this does not happen in a piece of academic writing. It is also very important to show the marker that you are not prone to make these stereotypical generalisations and that you are aware of these issues.

Task

Find alternatives for the sexist expressions in these sentences:

• A researcher in this area is likely to experience difficulties and he may meet resistance.
• It is clear that businessmen have to address the issue of computer crime far more seriously.
• The authoress arrived on time for the presentation.
• There is no doubt that men and women, as well as boys and girls, found the experience of travelling in Japan to be highly educational.
• I now pronounce you man and wife!
• The woman told the researcher that she had five girls working in the typing pool and three men in the store-room.
• As Tickling (1998) has shown, Man was far better equipped to cope with the extremes of temperature than was first thought.
• A recent economic survey (Openheimer, 1999) indicated that housewives responded far more rapidly than expected to price changes.
• With the recent fall in prices and the rapid technological developments, a consumer is more likely to change his computer within three years.
• The Kariba Dam is one of the largest man-made structures in Africa.

Notes on the Task

1. A researcher in this area is likely to experience difficulties, and he may meet resistance.

A researcher in this area is likely to experience difficulties, and Æ may meet resistance.

Researchers in this area are likely to experience difficulties and they may meet resistance.

2. It is clear that businessmen have to address the issue of computer crime far more seriously.

It is clear that business executives have to address the issue of computer crime far more seriously.

It is clear that business people have to address the issue of computer crime far more seriously.

3. The authoress arrived on time for the presentation.

The author arrived on time for the presentation.

4. There is no doubt that men and women, as well as boys and girls, found the experience of travelling in Japan to be highly educational.

There is no doubt that adults as well as children found the experience of travelling in Japan to be highly educational.

There is no doubt that women and men, as well as boys and girls, found the experience of travelling in Japan to be highly educational.

(Note: Don’t automatically place male reference words in front of female reference words.)

5. I now pronounce you man and wife!

I now pronounce you husband and wife!

6. The woman told the researcher that she had five girls working in the typing pool and three men in the store-room.

The woman told the researcher that she had five women working in the typing pool and three men in the store-room.

7. As Tickling (1998) has shown, Man was far better equipped to cope with the extremes of temperature than was first thought.

As Tickling (1998) has shown, human beings were far better equipped to cope with the extremes of temperature than was first thought.

As Tickling (1998) has shown, humans were far better equipped to cope with the extremes of temperature than was first thought.

As Tickling (1998) has shown, people were far better equipped to cope with the extremes of temperature than was first thought.

8. A recent economic survey (Openheimer, 1999) indicated that housewives responded far more rapidly than expected to price changes.

A recent economic survey (Openheimer, 1999) indicated that consumers responded far more rapidly than expected to price changes.

9. With the recent fall in prices and the rapid technological developments, a consumer is more likely to change his computer within three years.

With the recent fall in prices and the rapid technological developments, consumers are more likely to change their computer within three years.

10. The Kariba Dam is one of the largest man-made structures in Africa.

The Kariba Dam is one of the largest constructions in Africa.

The Kariba Dam is one of the largest artificial structures in Africa.

The Kariba Dam is one of the largest engineering structures in Africa.

Academic Writing Skills 26

Your bibliography

All the books that you have referenced in your essay, together with other books, articles and journals that you have referenced, will be listed at the very end of your essay. They should be arranged alphabetically according to the family name of the author so that the reader can find them easily.

The titles must be presented in a formal way and there are two main styles which institutions use for this purpose. It is best to check with your lecturers to find out which system your college would like you to adopt. It doesn’t matter which system is used as long as you follow it faithfully.

The Harvard System

This system lays out the details in this way:

name (+ initials) + date + title (in italics) + city + publisher

McChlery, J.P.S. (1998). Foreign Direct Investment in China 1990-1995. Oxford, OUP.

If you want to name only one particular article or chapter, the arrangement changes slightly, with the chapter or article being within commas. The book title remains in italics.

Liu, X. (1999). ‘Trading Patterns in China’, in Economic Modelling. London. Heinemann.

If it is an article in a journal:

Liu, X. and Simmonds P. (1999) ‘Investing in China’, China Today, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp.25 – 31.

It is important to get the layout absolutely correct because some markers can be very fussy when it comes to issues like this, so play safe and follow the pattern recommended by your own school, college, university, or publisher very carefully.

The British Standard System

The details are the same but the arrangement is slightly different, with the date coming at the end.

name (+ initials) + title (in italics) + city + publisher + date

Watling, M. South of the Sahara. Oxford: Heinemann, 1996.

The same pattern is followed for journals:

Smith, P. and Jones, B. ‘Luna Landing Craft’ Aeronautics 2000, Vol. 69, No. 2 (1999), pp.46-67.

Academic Writing Skills 27

Expressions commonly used in academic texts

Here is a list of expressions, mainly Latin based, that are found in academic writing. You may have met some of them in the past and wondered about the precise meaning. Using them correctly in your own essays will give your writing a more professional quality.

Expression	Original	Meaning
cf.	confer	compare
		copyright; date of publication
diss.		dissertation
et al.	et alii	and other authors not mentioned here
ibid.	ibidem	this is the same reference as the one before
i.e.	id est	that is to say
loc. cit	loco citato	in the place already cited
MS (MSS pl)		manuscript
N.B.	nota bene	take note of this point
op. cit	opere citato	in the work already cited recently
passim	passim	this point is made in several places
sic	sic	the error in this quotation was in the original
viz	vidalicet	namely

However, many of these expressions are no longer necessary and should be avoided especially when using Harvard or APA methods of citation and referencing.