Apostrophes have two functions:

• to indicate ownership (John’s pen)
• to indicate where some letters have been missed out, and these are called contractions (They’re driving down tomorrow.)

Look at these examples and decide why the apostrophe is there:

• It’s very hot today.
• I’m exhausted, and ready for bed.
• The government’s view has been clearly stated many times.
• Don’t ask me because I just can’t decide!
• That woman’s got a parrot on her shoulder!
• It’s very important to be independent and have a life of one’s own.

Apostrophes in contractions

In spoken and informal English it is common for some words to be combined and shortened; it sounds more natural and fluid.

I can’t see you tonight. = I cannot see you tonight.

Don’t do that. It’ll break. = Do not do that. It will break.

Some contractions (two words combined and shortened) are irregular:

• won’t = will not
• shan’t = shall not

The words is and has can both be abbreviated to ‘s.

• He’s been staying with his cousin.
• He’s very hard working and self-motivated.
• She’s sold her car and moved to Glasgow.
• She’s over there beside the drinks machine.

In order to avoid any confusion, we sometimes add got to make the meaning clearer:

• She’s a boat moored down on the coast, near Harwich.
• She’s got a boat moored down on the coast, near Harwich.

Apostrophes for ownership

If something belongs to a singular noun, we add [‘s] – an apostrophe and a letter [s] at the end.

For example:

• the boy’s computer = the computer belonging to (or being used by) the boy;
• the speaker’s idea = the idea of the speaker;
• the carpenter’s tools = the tools of the carpenter.

If something belongs to a plural noun that already ends with an [s], the apostrophe to show ownership or posession comes after that [s] but no additional [s] is normally necessary.

For example:

• the boys’ computers = the computers belonging to (or used by) the boys;
• the speakers’ ideas = the ideas of the speakers;
• the carpenters’ tools = the tools of the carpenters.

You will sometimes see this topic explained in terms of whether the apostrophe comes before or after the [s] but this is misleading. For possession, the basic form is to add [‘s] at the end BUT if the word already ends with an [s] we usually do not add the extra [s].

Some words are not regular in their plural form. If the plural form does not end in [s], we show possession by adding [‘s] to the end.

For example:

• child – the child’s toys — children – the children’s toys
• man – the man’s clothes — men – the men’s clothes
• woman – the woman’s hat — women – the women’s hats

In practice, we also avoid phrases that sound odd, such as the mice’s cheese, by reordering the words to, for example, the cheese of the mice.

Some nouns have identical singular and plural forms:

• sheep — sheep
• deer — deer
• fish — fish
• salmon — salmon (and most other types of fish)

The context of the word is the only way of knowing whether the noun is singular or plural.

• the sheep’s coat = the coat of the sheep (probably singular!)
• the sheep’s coats = the coats of the sheep (probably plural!)
• the deer’s food
• the fish’s rapid movements

Once again, some of the phrases sound odd, so we reorder the words: the food of the deer or the rapid movement of the fish.

Some singular noun words end in [s] and in these cases, the normal rule of an apostrophe followed by an [s] still applies.

• the scissors’s handle
• the dress’s sequins
• the princess’s husband
• the house’s roof

Again, in practice, we often reorder the words to avoid an awkward sounding phrase: the handle of the scissors or its handle; the roof of the house.

Some names (proper nouns) end with an [s] and this can be confusing. In such cases, the apostrophe can be placed either after the final [s] (Jones’ farm) or another [s] can be added and an apostrophe can be placed in front of it. (Jones’s farm). Opinions differ but you should regard both forms as correct. There is an added complication if the proper noun is referring to a plural entity:

the Smiths’ house = the house of the Smiths / the house of Smith family.

the Jones’ house = the house of the Joneses / the house of Jones family.

The apostrophe always comes before the -s when we use compound words:

• my brother-in-law’s car — my brothers-in-law’s cars
• her sister-in-law’s husband — her sisters-in-law’s husbands

It’s and its

These are often confused.

• it’s = it is — It’s my book.
• its = belonging to it — Have you seen my book? Its cover is red.

When in doubt, ask yourself whether the full form it is will fit in the sentence. If not, use its.

• It’s wonderful to be back in the big city!
• It’s an old farm set deep in the country.
• Its colour changes with the seasons of the year.
• I saw its eyes flash in the darkness, and then it was gone.

These are often confused so be careful!

Practice

Rewrite this passage, placing all of the apostrophes correctly.

The future looked bleak after years of poor management and low export sales. However, the governments view was that the only way forward was up! “We shan’t make any progress by whining,” exclaimed the Chancellor of the Exchequer. “We must work hard and adopt modern solutions to todays problems. His views were echoed by many of the members of parliament. The opposition disagreed. “Its disgraceful!” cried the opposition leader. “The chancellors programme is going to bring ruin to this country!” The Prime Ministers reply was short and to the point. “Thats rubbish!” he said. In fact, he was less concerned with the oppositions views than he was with views closer to home. He was more concerned about his wifes attitude, because he knew she could cause him a lot of touble. She made her views quite clear. “The peoples future depends upon good housekeeping! The cabinets plans must reflect the needs of ordinary people. Without that, your partys doomed!”

Commas are very important with a special group of clauses which are called essential and non-essential clauses, also called defining and non-defining clauses.

With essential and non-essential clauses it is important to use commas correctly because different uses can change the meaning of the sentence.

Essential clauses identify the person or thing that is being described. They are essential to understanding the sentence. They define the person or the thing. For example:

• My sister who lives in France came to see us last month. (I have 2 sisters)
• The woman who bought my house is an MP.

The clauses in bold are essential to the understanding of the sentences. If they are removed, the sentences lose their meaning. We won’t know which sister or which woman the speaker is referring to. These clauses often start with who, which or that. We do not use commas with clauses of this kind.

Non-essential clauses are not essential to the understanding of the sentence since they merely supply some additional information. They can be omitted from the sentence without changing the basic meaning. For example:

• My MP, who lives just up the road, came round to see me yesterday.
• The fisherman, who was wearing Wellington boots, came running up the road.

If we left out the underlined clauses it would not affect the meaning. Non-essential clauses like this often start with who or which but never that. When we use clauses of this type, we must use commas.

Try reading aloud the four examples given above. What do you notice? You might have noticed that where we place commas in the non-essential clauses, we also place a pause in our speech.

Here are some more examples of non-essential clauses in sentences; hence, we need commas.

• Mr. Robinson, who is a retired lecturer, does voluntary work at the centre.
• Tandi, who speaks Spanish, should apply for the job.
• Malaria, which is widespread these days, is a dangerous disease.

Some people find it quite difficult to decide where to end a group of words with a full stop.

What, in practical terms, is a sentence?

A written sentence should have certain characteristics:

• a capital letter at the beginning
• a full-stop at the end
• a subject (who or what the sentence is about)
• a verb (that tells you what’s happening)
• and, finally, it should express ‘a single thought’.

There are a few other helpful points about a sentence:

• a sentence can be long or short;
• it can be very simple or very complex;
• a sentence can be broken up with commas, semi-colons, colons, dashes and so on.

Here are some examples of sentences:

• Have you seen John? (question)
• He’s in the library. (statement)
• No, he’s not in the library. (negative statement)
• You’ve looked in there, have you? (question using question tag)
• Of course I’ve looked in there! (exclamation)
• Please move to the left. (instruction)
• Pick up that book! (command)

Here are some examples of collections of words that are not sentences.

• So what?
• Noise!
• And close the door when you go out!
• But he never heard the reply.
• A long, dark shape, with a short, white tail.
• Because I want to travel the world.

Clauses are collections of words that could in theory be sentences but which are parts of sentences. Here are sentences made up of two clauses. The clauses are in bold.

• I went to the market because I wanted to buy some breadfruit.
• He didn’t manage to pass the exam even though he worked very hard.
• I’m feeling very hungry so I’m going to get some food out of the fridge.
• The government was worried but they didn’t alter their foreign policy.

Sentences can be made up of more than two clauses.

• I went to the library where I met Eli who was waiting for a reserved book.

This is made up of three parts:

• I went to the library.
• I met Eli.
• Eli was waiting for a reserved book.

Clauses can be independent or dependent. Independent clauses can stand alone as sentences. Dependent clauses need to be attached to another clause which is independent.

• If you don’t give me back my pen, I’ll hit you.

The first clause is dependent because by itself it doesn’t complete the thought; the second clause is independent as it could stand alone.

• He received no thanks despite all the hard work he had done.

The first is an independent clause as it could stand alone; the second is dependent because we need another part to tell us what the word it refers to.

• When I get back I’ll come over to your place with the books.

The first clause is dependent because when I get back does not complete the thought in this sentence; the second is independent as it could stand alone.

• Although she’s only sixteen she is a very fast runner.

The first clause is dependent as it cannot stand alone and make a full ‘thought’; the latter clause is independent as it could happily be a sentence by itself.

• I walked across to see Jamie who was working in the restaurant.

The first clause is independent but the second doesn’t make sense by itself.

It’s worth noting that all clauses have a verb. If a collection of words does not have a verb then it is likely to be a phrase. Here are some phrases:

• my long lost brother
• the book on the television in the corner
• the old man with the red cap on his head by the library
• a very interesting story
• his delightful and talented daughter in Form 5

Run-together sentences (or run-on sentences) are examples of sentences that should be divided up into two sentences but have been written as if they are one sentence. Writing sentences like this is a common mistake.

Look at these two examples. Why do we describe them as run-together sentences?

• The corner-shop near us sells groceries and vegetables it also wells wine and beer.
• Jabu always prepares his lectures at the weekend he finds it easier that way.

They are described as run-together (or run-on) sentences because in fact they are both made up of two sentences. They should be divided up in the following ways:

• The corner-shop near us sells groceries and vegetables. It also wells wine and beer.
• Jabu always prepares his lectures at the weekend. He finds it easier that way.

We can correct run-together sentences in several different ways.

1. We can use a semicolon if the sentences are not too long. We can also make two separate sentences.
   • Jacob will start his new job in January; he’s looking forward to it.
   • The children love their new house; they play all the time in the garden.
2. We can join sentences using a linking word like and, but, so, or, yet, for.
   • Jacob will start his new job in January and he’s looking forward to it.
   • The children love their new house so they play all the time in the garden.
3. Words such as because, although, since, so that, whereas can be used to begin a dependent clause that cannot stand alone.
   • He was very tired and weary because it was a long way.
   • Some countries have a long history of peace although this is not true of others.
4. We can use a linking word or phrase (however, nevertheless, in addition, for example, on the other hand, moreover, therefore, consequently, in contrast) to make links between clauses/sentences.
   • The area is very beautiful; however, it’s also very remote.
   • The government’s tax policy needs reform; for example, inheritance tax.
   • Her style on the dance-floor is faultless; in contrast, her private life is in chaos.
   Some other examples:
   • ! Most accidents are caused by young male drivers they rarely have a driving licence.
   • Most accidents are caused by young male drivers; they rarely have a driving licence.
   • ! Some of the products were faulty the majority of them were fine.
   • Some of the products were faulty; nevertheless, the majority of them were fine.
   • ! The Prime Minister was in favour he wanted to send more troops.
   • The Prime Minister was in favour; moreover, he wanted to send more troops.

Commas are a bit of a curiosity in writing because some people seem to use them very regularly while others never appear to use them at all. Not surprisingly, both approaches are wrong.

The comma is an important element of punctuation which is required in some circumstances and highly desirable in others. There are, however, some occasions where there is an element of choice and this is sometimes where people become a little uncertain.

Here are the main ways in which we use commas in English:

We use commas to separate items in lists:

• He put his torch, map, guidebook, sandwiches and a drink in his bag.
• The teacher said that he was lazy, insolent, aggressive and disruptive.
• He lives in Paris, shops in London, and holidays in Spain.
• He told me to park the car, pay at the machine, walk to the doors and wait for him.

Note how the last item is introduced with and but there is normally no comma, although see the third sentence.

However, there can also be some uncertainty with lists where an adjective is being modified in some way. For example:

• She was pretty wet and covered with sea-weed when I first met her.

Or could this be:

• She was pretty, wet and covered with sea-weed when I first met her.

Another example:

• He described his approach as new, Labour, liberal, democratic and open.

Or could it be:

• He described his approach as new Labour, liberal-democratic and open.

We use commas to separate two independent clauses that are joined by words like and, but, or, nor, so:

• The path was steep, but the walkers were determined.
• The accident was due to carelessness, and he was very annoyed.
• All he had to do was to pay a small monthly sum, or so he thought.

(Note that an independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a sentence.)

We use commas to separate a dependent clause (introduced by words like as, because, since, when, after, while etc.) from a main clause:

• As she was tired, he carried her rucksack. (dependent clause followed by main clause)
• Because she had a headache, she stopped working for a while. (dependent clause followed by main clause)

(Note that a dependent clause cannot stand alone but must be linked to another clause.)

Commas are used after an introductory word or phrase, or before an afterthought:

• However, winters are not always cold and wet.
• Nevertheless, it’s time you started to take your work more seriously.
• First, before you do anything else, I want you to see a doctor.
• She wanted to do well but she didn’t, unfortunately.

They are used to enclose extra information that interrupts the flow of the sentence:

• The old dog, once so lithe and strong, was reduced to skin and bone.
• She is, in terms of her results, the best triathlete in the world.
• His jacket, or what remained of it, could not hide his injury.

We use a comma where we add in an appropriate name or descriptive phrase to add further information about an individual or an object:

• The youngest driver, Lewis Hamilton, was the winner.
• The driver, an unemployed Russian, had no licence or insurance.
• The judge, a very charismatic man, led the demonstration.

We find commas after time phrases:

• At 9 o’clock, the meeting started:
• By 2006, the evidence for global warming was overwhelming.
• By the time of his retirement, he was quite famous.

Commas are used to balance contrasting phrases:

• He might lose his hair, (but) never his sense of humour.
• He might bark, but he’d never bite.
• The meeting is on Tuesday, not Thursday.

Commas are important in direct speech:

• “He’s very angry,” she said.
• “I’ll always love you,” he murmured.
• “I’ll see what I can do,” he said, “but I can’t promise anything.”

We often use commas to avoid ambiguity:

• My second sister, who lives in France, is teaching English.
• I’m hot, and bothered about what to do with the children.
• I’m feeling sick, and tired of listening to this speech.

We use commas to show that some words have been left out:

• Birmingham and London are the preferred venues; Bristol, the other option.
• French and German are doing well; Chinese, much better.

We need commas with some types of clauses:

Commas are also very important with a special group of clauses which are called essential and non-essential clauses, also known as defining and non-defining clauses.

The end of every sentence must be marked with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark.

Some people are unsure where a sentence ends and may mistakenly leave them out. For example, in this collection of words, there must be a full stop after news.

• He was astounded at the news he didn’t know what to say.
  (For more on this, see Sentences and clauses.)

We also use full stops for certain abbreviations; for example:

• Smith and Co.
• i.e.
• e.g.
• Sometimes with a.m. and p.m.
• Sometimes with abbreviations of month names

Note that abbreviated scientific and metric units of measurement should never have a full stop (unless at the end of a sentence).

• ’The rectangle was 16cm by 22cm’ is correct.
• ’The car exceeded the speed limit of 50 km/h’ is correct.

However, where an abbreviation starts and ends with the correct letters of a word, then there is no stop; for example, Mr , Mrs , Ms and Dr and similar abbreviations.

Many well-known names or titles are not used with full stops and so we regularly see MP without any full stops as well as the USA, UK, UN, UNICEF and so on.

Accepted convention varies in different parts of the English-speaking world. In American English, full stops to separate the letters in an abbreviation are more likely to be used than in British English.

Although you will see variations in usage, you need to check what is acceptable within a particular environment or type of writing and above all be consistent within your own essay or other piece of writing.

Capital letters are very important but nowadays they are being left out more and more frequently. One reason is that because people do not use capital letters in their email address, they sometimes wrongly believe that it is acceptable to leave them out of a postal address. It is not unusual for employers to receive application letters with no capital letters in the address. This is a significant mistake and would not encourage any employer to offer such people a job.

Capitals must always be used at the start of a sentence and the first word of a letter (Dear John. When I saw your letter …). They must also be used for the names of people (Jacob Morley) as well as their title (Mrs Ms Mr), mountains (Mount Kilimanjaro), countries (Sri Lanka), capital cities (London), the first word of book titles at the very least (In Search of Fatima) as well as important buildings such as the House of Commons or Westminster Abbey. We must also use them when we speak about populations (the Chinese, the English) and religions (Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, the Quakers).

We use them when we refer to regions of the world (the East) or to areas (West Lothian; West Midlands) but not when we are giving directions (Turn east after the river…). We use them in titles (Dr Liu; Professor Kanji) but not when we are speaking generally (It’s clear that doctors follow a rigorous training course). We use capitals to refer to dates (B.C or A.D) but not to time (a.m. and p.m.). We use capitals for months (August) and days (Tuesday) but not to illnesses (influenza. chickenpox).

We use capitals for some senior titles and positions (Lord Giddens, The Speaker of the House of Commons, the Chief Whip, the Head, the Principal) but not in general (I think that teachers work very hard. She thinks that fire-fighters are brave.).

People sometimes use capitals in emails to highlight something. However, when it is used throughout an email it is seen as impolite and ‘shouting’ and so many people will avoid it.